Af  Solveig Czeskleba-Dupont

Lektor & centerleder CNAS, Hvalsø

1. december, 2004

I september 2002, da USA begyndte at true Irak med en militærinvasion, stødte jeg på bogen Sunkne Paladser – historien om Orientens opdagelse af Mogens Trolle Larsen (Gyldendal 1996). Forfatteren er lektor i assyriologi ved Carsten Niebuhr Instituttet ved Københavns Universitet og har selv deltaget i flere udgravninger i Mellemøsten. I sit værk gennemgår Trolle Larsen på 400 sider historien omkring det 19. årh.s store udgravninger langs Eufrat og Tigris , blandt andet udgravningerne af oldtidsbyerne Babylon og Nineve, der er kendt fra Bibelen. Sunkne Paladser er en spændende og rigt illustreret bog, der til fulde viser Iraks særstilling inden for vores kulturhistorie, og som sætter Iraks senere dramatiske udvikling i perspektiv.

Som bekendt er det siden efteråret 2002 gået grueligt galt for den irakiske befolkning. I slutningen af marts 2003 blev landet angrebet af en koalition med USA og UK i spidsen og er nu styret af besættelsesmagterne sammen med en midlertidig irakisk regering, hvis legitimitet er problematisk. De foregående 35 år har heller ikke været lette – med Saddams politiske rædselsregime, krigen i 80’erne med Iran, den anden Golfkrig i 1991 og endelig 12 år med meget strenge økonomiske og militære sanktioner frem til 2003, som anslås at have kostet 1/2 mill. irakiske børn livet.

Fra august 2002 har jeg fulgt den internationale politiske udvikling vedrørende Irak på FNs hjemmeside (www.un.org), hvor der dagligt er opdateringer om situationen i Verdens politiske brændpunkter. Jeg har hørt Orientering i PR1 og læst avisernes telegrammer og kommentarer til udviklingen, altsåmmen meget foruroligende. Men konflikten er uhyre kompleks, og derfor har det været vanskeligt at danne sig et overblik. Inden for det seneste år er der imidlertid kommet flere bøger på dansk om Irakkrigen og dens forudsætninger, der kan hjælpe på vores lave informationsniveau, bl.a. Hans Blix’ bog (med den engelske titel Disarming Iraq) om forløbet frem til krigsudbruddet i marts 2003 set fra FNs og våbeninspektørernes side.

Jan Øbergs bog Forudsigelig Fiasko – Konflikten med Irak og Danmark som besættelsesmagt , der udkom i april 2004 hører ligesom Blix’ bog til de mere tankevækkende. Jan Øberg, der selv besøgte Irak i maj 2002 og i januar 2003, er kendt som freds- og konfliktforsker og har tidligere udgivet bøgerne Myter om Vor Sikkerhed (1981), At udvikle sikkerhed og sikre udvikling (1983) og Vind freden (1988). Han er leder af den uafhængige tænketank Transnationale Stiftelse for Freds- og Fremtidsforskning (TFF) i Lund i Sverige (www.transnational.org). Stiftelsen består af et globalt netværk, der omfatter cirka 80 forskere, diplomater, mediefolk, pensionerede militærfolk og FN-medarbejdere. Netværket udvikler bl.a.alternative fredsplaner og bidrager til folkeoplysning om ikke-voldens potentialer og om FNs og Gandhis norm om, at fred først og fremmest skal skabes med fredelige midler.

Øberg har skrevet Forudsigelig Fiasko sammen med Christian Hårleman, Else Hammerich, Jørgen Johansen og Hans von Sponeck, som alle er knyttet til TFF. Bogen er eksplicit dedikeret til irakerne og FNs folk i Irak. Formålet har været at analysere Irakkrigen ud fra konfliktforskernes erfaringer og at komme med “forslag til, hvad der endnu kan og bør gøres i Irak for dels at mindske risikoen for at alt bliver endnu værre, dels øge chancerne for at irakerne kan begynde at håbe på et normalt liv igen.” (s. 11) Derfor slutter bogen med konkrete forslag til hvordan besættelsen kan bringes til ophør, en ny FN-mission sættes ind og hvordan en europæisk-mellemøstlig dialog og forsoning kan igangsættes. Øberg konkluderer, at der er behov for en ny politik over for Irak, der indebærer “en omfattende og bredt sammensat FN-tilstedeværelse i Irak, men kun under forudsætning af, at amerikanerne trækker sig ud og højest indgår i denne på lige fod med andre.”(s. 282) – I den sammenhæng er det vigtigt at notere sig, at bogen blev leveret til trykning i marts 2004.

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Det har været afgørende for forfatterne at komme hurtigt ud på bogmarkedet for om muligt at påvirke udviklingen i Irak i en mindre krigerisk retning. Men siden foråret 2004 er sikkerhedssituationen desværre blevet yderligere forværret. Meget er gået skævt i Irak. Gidseltagningerne er taget til. Modstandsbevægelsen er ikke kun en lille gruppe Saddamtilhængere og udefrakommende terrorister, men nu består den også af mange unge irakere, der har mistet troen på at amerikanerne m.fl. kan bringe fred, sikkerhed og udvikling til landet. På grund af den elendige sikkerhedssituation kan man ikke komme igang med en fornuftig genopbygning for at skaffe flere i arbejde, og her i november er alle irakere stadigvæk afhængige af fødevarer udefra. Det værste lige nu er USA-bombardementerne af Falludja – en by på størrelse med Århus, hvor der stadigvæk formodes at være mindst 50.000 civile tilbage.

Men hvorfor er det gået så skævt?

I et af de afsluttende kapitler resumerer Øberg de centrale årsager. Her vil jeg blot nævne følgende: Alle vigtige antagelser hos koalitionen forud for krigen var fejlagtige. Irakernes forventninger til livet i Irak efter Saddams fald var meget store – ikke mindst pga propagandaløfter, og de er blevet skuffede og føler sig enormt ydmygede. Man skulle heller aldrig have afskediget hele hæren, politiet, Baath-partiets embedsmænd og andre civile uden selv at have kapacitet og kundskaber til at overtage samfundsfunktionerne. Endelig havde besættelsesmyndighederne groft undervurderet hvor meget , der skulle til for at normalisere landet igen efter krigen i 1991, FNs sanktioner 1991 – 2003 og krigen i 2003.

For alle, men ikke mindst for undervisere og mediefolk, der beskæftiger sig med samfundsforhold og politisk geografi, er bogens korte introduktion til konfliktteori yderst nyttig viden. Øberg skriver, at en konflikt består af:

A. Attituder , dvs parternes holdninger til hvad konflikten drejer sig om, deres opfattelse af sig selv og modparten/erne samt deres vrede, sorg eller had.

B. Behaviour/adfærd, dvs det parterne gør i en konflikt. Konfliktadfærd er noget TV-avisen kan vise billeder af. (Parterne siger nedladende ting, skyder, ignorerer)

C. Selve konflikten – conflict – består af modsætningen, uforeneligheden mellem parterne.

D. Konfliktens deltagere. I mere komplekse konflikter er der altid mere end to parter, dvs ikke kun “de gode” og “de onde”. – I det tidligere Jugoslavien var der cirka 40 parter heriblandt mange delparter i hver republik, folkeslag og i det politiske system. I Irak er der ikke kun tre grupper, der er ikke kun sunnier, shiiter og kurder. Irak udgør en kulturel mosaik og en social struktur, der gør landet lige så komplekst som det tidligere Jugoslavien. Men udover Irak er Israel, de arabiske nabostater, Tyrkiet og islam (som kultur og religion) involveret. Konflikten drejer sig med andre ord om meget, meget mere end om Saddam

E og F… står uden at korrespondere med et bestemt ord for alt det andet man også bør vide noget om, dvs. konfliktens historie, de vigtigste lederpersonligheder, om konflikten i første række handler om kvaliteter som identiter, hæder, prestige, menneskerettigheder og andre dybt menneskelige ting eller om mere eksterne ting som penge, territorier og mineralforekomster.

Ligesom afsnittet om konfliktforståelsens ABC og DEF…, s. 15 – 17, kan andre udvalgte afsnit anvendes til undervisningsbrug. Her tænker jeg også på det korte afsnit om Iraks historie fra 5000 år fvt og til 1990, s. 89 – 93. De fine fotos af daglivet for irakerne i 2002 og beg. af 2003 understøtter dette afsnit. Men ellers finder jeg, at bogen mest er egnet til at give læsere en konfliktteoretisk indføring i politisk geografi med Irak-USA konflikten som kompleks case. Som geograf savner jeg dog et enkelt godt kort over Irak.- Frem for at tage sig tid at at få udarbejdet et index over de mange navne – og sagsforhold , som ville have været en hjælpende hånd for læseren, men ville have forsinket bogens udgivelse, har forfatterne helt eksplicit vægtet den hurtige fremkomst højest.

Solveig Czeskleba-Dupont, centerleder, CNAS/Hvalsø

Peace & future researcher + ‌Art Photographer

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