The Myth of Ethnic War
Serbia and Croatia in the 1990s
V.P. Gagnon Jr
Cornell University Press

Daytonavtalet undertecknades på en amerikansk flygbas december 1995. Därmed sattes punkt för ett blodigt bosniskt inbördeskrig. Fredsavtalet ledde till att vapnen vilade men inte till att fred byggdes. Bosnien är i dag ett internationellt protektorat. Fredsavtalet garanterade de etniska grupperna vissa rättigheter, vilket försvårat ett politiskt demokratibygge baserat på medborgarskap. Hög arbetslöshet och utbredd fattigdom präglar den unga staten. Det finns de som kallat Bosnien en “monsterstat”.

Varför har såren från kriget varit så svårläkta?

En orsak är att fredsavtalet inte konstruerades för att lindra de konflikter som lett till krig. Kriget beskrevs ständigt som ett etniskt krig mellan hatiska folkgrupper. Daytonavtalet skapade en “etnisk fred”, med etnisk maktbalans. Men var det ett “etniskt krig”? Naturligtvis inte, det vet varenda människa med rötter på Balkan.

Redan i titeln till sin bok “The Myth of Ethnic War” gör den amerikanske professorn V P Gagnon Jr upp med myten om de etniska krigen på Balkan. Gagnon fokuserar på Serbien och Kroatien under 1990-talet. Båda länderna har av många västerländska forskare och journalister beskrivits som ett slags prototyper för extrem nationalism och etniska krig. Det hela har inte blivit bättre av tendensen i väst att beskriva det som skedde som krig mellan “onda serber” och “goda kroater och bosniaker”.

De jugoslaviska sönderfallskrigen inleddes kort tid efter det kalla krigets slut. Det var en period när västerlänningar hävdade att deras liberala värden hade triumferat, skriver Gagnon. Kanske var det en anledning till att västmedier beskrev krigen i ex-Jugoslavien i förmoderna termer, som stamkrig och etniskt hat. Balkan framställdes som antitesen till det moderna Väst.

De bilderna stämde inte alls med hur människor i de berörda områdena upplevde konflikten, konstaterar Gagnon. Jag har själv samma erfarenhet efter tjugotalet resor till krigets Balkan under 90-talet.

Hur var det i Serbien? De elitstyrda massmedierna gjorde allt i sin förmåga för att piska upp krigsstämning. Men ställde de unga serbiska männen upp för fosterlandet liksom fransmän, tyskar och engelsmän hade gjort i första och andra världskriget? Nej, tvärtom. I Belgrad vapenvägrade 85 till 90 procent av de inkallade, i Serbien som helhet mellan 50 och 80 procent. 200.000 män i vapenför ålder flydde landet. Bland dem som inkallades deserterade ett stort antal.

På Orust bildade fredsaktivisterna Ola och Erni Friholt – rådgivare för TFF – ett “konsulat” för “Den andliga republiken Zitzer”. Zitzer var namnet på en pizzeria där unga serbiska vapenvägrare med icke-våld höll ut mot militärmakten.  Republikens vapen var en pizza och tre biljardklot.
* * *

Krigen utspelade sig särskilt i områden med blandad etnisk befolkning. Det var också områden där människor hade den högsta positiva nivån av fredligt samexisterande över etniska gränser, med många blandäktenskap. Våldet i sådana områden uppstod inte genom lokal massmobilisering, skriver Gagnon. Nästan utan undantag flammade regionala krig upp som resultat av strategiska beslut fattgade av de politiska eliterna i Belgrad och Zagreb.

Gagnons tes är att krigen handlade om nationella eliter som när deras makt hotades sökte destabilisera hoten. Ett sätt var att i propagandan visa hur oskyldiga civila drabbades av “de onda andra”. Eliterna skapade krig för att behålla sin makt, på liknande vis i Kroatien och i Serbien.

Det handlade ofta om både makt och pengar. I Kroatien överfördes mycket av den statliga egendomen till ett toppskikt av det nationalistiska HDZ-partiets medlemmar, som tog över enorma rikedomar. I Serbien var processen lite annorlunda. Milosevics SPS använde insiderprivatisering liksom i Kroatien, så att partimedlemmar gynnades. Därutöver hjälpte partiet den organiserade kriminella maffia som växt fram mycket till följd av de internationella sanktionerna. Nu skapades en mäktig klass av maffiabossar, som för övrigt låg bakom det ödesdigra mordet 2003 på premiärminister Djindjic.

Makt och pengar var också drivkrafter på en annan nivå, för de paramilitära banditband som “i nationens namn” låg bakom många av de värsta grymheterna, när de för egen vinning plundrade och våldförde sig på civila.* * *

Gagnon applicerar i en utvikning sin teori på Bushs USA. Han menar att det finns stora likheter mellan Bushadministrationens agerande efter 11 september och Tudjmans och Milosevics, i Kroatien respektive Serbien under krigsåren. Bush har använt kriget mot terrorismen som ett sätt att destabilisera den inhemska oppositionen. Hans tal om att “antingen är du med oss eller mot oss” påminner skrämmande om den värsta nationalistiska retoriken på Balkan. De som kritiserat presidenten stämplades som nationella förrädare, för att delegitimera deras argument.

Författaren diskuterar också länder där det kalla krigets slut inte ledde till inbördeskrig. Ungern påminde på många sätt om Serbien och Kroatien. Men den ungerska eliten hade andra strategier och krig hörde inte till dem.

V P Gagnon är freds- och konfliktsforskare vid Cornell University. Hans bok är ett viktigt bidrag till studierna av de jugoslaviska sönderfallskrigens orsaker.

Sören Sommelius

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